[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":759},["ShallowReactive",2],{"/en-us/blog/moving-to-headless-chrome":3,"navigation-en-us":36,"banner-en-us":464,"footer-en-us":481,"Mike Greiling":726,"next-steps-en-us":738,"footer-source-/en-us/blog/moving-to-headless-chrome/":753},{"_path":4,"_dir":5,"_draft":6,"_partial":6,"_locale":7,"seo":8,"content":16,"config":26,"_id":29,"_type":30,"title":31,"_source":32,"_file":33,"_stem":34,"_extension":35},"/en-us/blog/moving-to-headless-chrome","blog",false,"",{"title":9,"description":10,"ogTitle":9,"ogDescription":10,"noIndex":6,"ogImage":11,"ogUrl":12,"ogSiteName":13,"ogType":14,"canonicalUrls":12,"schema":15},"How GitLab switched to Headless Chrome for testing","A detailed explanation with examples of how GitLab made the switch to headless Chrome.","https://res.cloudinary.com/about-gitlab-com/image/upload/v1749680270/Blog/Hero%20Images/headless-chrome-cover.jpg","https://about.gitlab.com/blog/moving-to-headless-chrome","https://about.gitlab.com","article","\n                        {\n        \"@context\": \"https://schema.org\",\n        \"@type\": \"Article\",\n        \"headline\": \"How GitLab switched to Headless Chrome for testing\",\n        \"author\": [{\"@type\":\"Person\",\"name\":\"Mike Greiling\"}],\n        \"datePublished\": \"2017-12-19\",\n      }",{"title":9,"description":10,"authors":17,"heroImage":11,"date":19,"body":20,"category":21,"tags":22},[18],"Mike Greiling","2017-12-19","GitLab recently switched from PhantomJS to headless Chrome for both our\n\nfrontend tests and our RSpec feature tests. In this post we will detail the\n\nreasons we made this transition, the challenges we faced, and the solutions\nwe\n\ndeveloped. We hope this will benefit others making the switch.\n\n\n\u003C!-- more -->\n\n\nWe now have a truly accurate way to test GitLab within a real, modern\nbrowser.\n\nThe switch has improved our ability to write tests and debug them while\nrunning\n\nthem directly in Chrome. Plus the change forced us to confront and clean up\na\n\nnumber of hacks we had been using in our tests.\n\n\n## Switching to headless Chrome from PhantomJS: background\n\n\n[PhantomJS](http://phantomjs.org) has been a part of GitLab's test framework\n\n[for almost five\nyears](https://gitlab.com/gitlab-org/gitlab-ce/commit/ba25b2dc84cc25e66d6fa1450fee39c9bac002c5).\n\nIt has been an immensely useful tool for running browser integration tests\nin a\n\nheadless environment at a time when few options were available. However, it\n\nhad some shortcomings:\n\n\nThe most recent version of PhantomJS (v2.1.1) is compiled with a\nthree-year-old\n\nversion of [QtWebKit](https://trac.webkit.org/wiki/QtWebKit) (a fork of\nWebKit\n\nv538.1 according to the user-agent string). This puts it on par with\nsomething\n\nlike Safari 7 on macOS 10.9. It resembles a real modern browser, but it's\nnot\n\nquite there. It has a different JavaScript engine, an older rendering\nengine,\n\nand a host of missing features and quirks.\n\n\nAt this time, GitLab supports [the current and previous major\n\nrelease](https://docs.gitlab.com/ee/install/requirements.html#supported-web-browsers)\nof\n\nFirefox, Chrome, Safari, and Microsoft Edge/IE. This puts PhantomJS and its\n\ncapabilities somewhere near or below our lowest common denominator. Many\nmodern\n\nbrowser features either [do not\nwork](http://phantomjs.org/supported-web-standards.html),\n\nor [require vendor prefixes](http://phantomjs.org/tips-and-tricks.html) and\n\npolyfills that none of our supported browsers require. We could selectively\n\nadd these polyfills, prefixes, and other workarounds just within our test\n\nenvironment, but doing so would increase technical debt, cause confusion,\nand\n\nmake the tests less representative of a true production environment. In most\n\ncases we had opted to simply omit them or hack around them (more on this\n\n[later](#trigger-method)).\n\n\nHere's a screenshot of the way PhantomJS renders a page from GitLab,\nfollowed\n\nby the same page rendered in Google Chrome:\n\n\n![Page Rendered by\nPhantomJS](https://about.gitlab.com/images/blogimages/moving-to-headless-chrome/render-phantomjs.png){:\n.shadow.center}\n\n\n![Page Rendered by Google\nChrome](https://about.gitlab.com/images/blogimages/moving-to-headless-chrome/render-chrome.png){:\n.shadow.center}\n\n\nYou can see in PhantomJS the filter tabs are rendered horizontally, the\nicons\n\nin the sidebar render on their own lines, the global search field is\n\noverflowing off the navbar, etc.\n\n\nWhile it looks ugly, in most cases we could still use this to run functional\n\ntests, so long as elements of the page remain visible and clickable, but\nthis\n\ndisparity with the way GitLab rendered in a real browser did introduce\nseveral\n\nedge cases.\n\n\n## What is headless Chrome\n\n\nIn April of this year, [news\nspread](https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=14101233)\n\nthat Chrome 59 would support a [native, cross-platform headless\n\nmode](https://www.chromestatus.com/features/5678767817097216). It was\n\npreviously possible to simulate a headless Chrome browser in CI/CD [using\n\nvirtual frame buffer](https://gist.github.com/addyosmani/5336747), but this\n\nrequired a lot of memory and extra complexities. A native headless mode is a\n\ngame changer. It is now possible to run integration tests in a headless\n\nenvironment on a real, modern web browser that our users actually use!\n\n\nSoon after this was revealed, Vitaly Slobodin, PhantomJS's chief developer,\n\nannounced that the project [would no longer be\n\nmaintained](https://github.com/ariya/phantomjs/issues/15105#issuecomment-322850178):\n\n\n\u003Cdiv class=\"center\">\n\n\n\u003Cblockquote class=\"twitter-tweet\" data-cards=\"hidden\" data-lang=\"en\">\u003Cp\nlang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\">This is the end - \u003Ca\nhref=\"https://t.co/GVmimAyRB5\">https://t.co/GVmimAyRB5\u003C/a>\u003Ca\nhref=\"https://twitter.com/hashtag/phantomjs?src=hash&ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw\">#phantomjs\u003C/a>\n2.5 will not be released. Sorry, guys!\u003C/p>— Vitaly Slobodin\n(@Vitalliumm) \u003Ca\nhref=\"https://twitter.com/Vitalliumm/status/852450027318464513?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw\">April\n13, 2017\u003C/a>\u003C/blockquote>\n\n\u003Cscript async src=\"https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js\"\ncharset=\"utf-8\">\u003C/script>\n\n\n\u003C/div>\n\n\nIt became clear that we would need to make the transition away from\nPhantomJS at\n\nsome point, so we [opened up an\nissue](https://gitlab.com/gitlab-org/gitlab-ce/issues/30876),\n\ndownloaded the Chrome 59 beta, and started looking at options.\n\n\n### Frontend tests (Karma)\n\n\nOur frontend test suite utilizes the [Karma](http://karma-runner.github.io/)\n\ntest runner, and updating this to work with Google Chrome was surprisingly\n\nsimple ([here's the merge\nrequest](https://gitlab.com/gitlab-org/gitlab-ce/merge_requests/12036)).\n\nThe\n[karma-chrome-launcher](https://github.com/karma-runner/karma-chrome-launcher)\n\nplugin was very quickly updated to support headless mode starting from\n\n[version\n2.1.0](https://github.com/karma-runner/karma-chrome-launcher/releases/tag/v2.1.0),\n\nand it was essentially a drop-in replacement for the PhantomJS launcher.\nOnce\n\nwe [re-built our CI/CD build\nimages](https://gitlab.com/gitlab-org/gitlab-build-images/merge_requests/41)\n\nto include Google Chrome 59 (and fiddled around with some pesky timeout\n\nsettings), it worked!  We were also able to remove some rather ugly\n\nPhantomJS-specific hacks that Jasmine required to spy on some built-in\nbrowser\n\nfunctions.\n\n\n### Backend feature tests (RSpec + Capybara)\n\n\nOur feature tests use RSpec and\n[Capybara](https://github.com/teamcapybara/capybara)\n\nto perform full end-to-end integration testing of database, backend, and\n\nfrontend interactions. Before switching to headless Chrome, we had used\n\n[Poltergeist](https://github.com/teampoltergeist/poltergeist) which is a\n\nPhantomJS driver for Capybara. It would spin up a PhantomJS browser instance\n\nand direct it to browse, fill out forms, and click around on pages to verify\n\nthat everything behaved as it should.\n\n\nSwitching from PhantomJS to Google Chrome required a change in drivers from\n\nPoltergeist to Selenium and\n[ChromeDriver](https://sites.google.com/a/chromium.org/chromedriver/).\n\nSetting this up was pretty straightforward. You can install ChromeDriver on\n\nmacOS with `brew install chromedriver` and the process is similar on any\ngiven\n\npackage manager in Linux. After this we added the `selenium-webdriver` gem\nto\n\nour test dependencies and configured Capybara like so:\n\n\n```ruby\n\nrequire 'selenium-webdriver'\n\n\nCapybara.register_driver :chrome do |app|\n  options = Selenium::WebDriver::Chrome::Options.new(\n    args: %w[headless disable-gpu no-sandbox]\n  )\n  Capybara::Selenium::Driver.new(app, browser: :chrome, options: options)\nend\n\n\nCapybara.javascript_driver = :chrome\n\n```\n\n\nGoogle says the [`disable-gpu` option is necessary for the time\n\nbeing](https://developers.google.com/web/updates/2017/04/headless-chrome#cli)\n\nuntil some bugs are resolved. The `no-sandbox` option also appears to be\n\nnecessary to get Chrome running inside a Docker container for [GitLab's\nCI/CD\n\nenvironment](/topics/ci-cd/). Google provides a [useful guide for working\nwith headless Chrome\n\nand\nSelenium](https://developers.google.com/web/updates/2017/04/headless-chrome).\n\n\nIn our final implementation we changed this to conditionally add the\n`headless`\n\noption unless you have `CHROME_HEADLESS=false` in your environment. This\nmakes\n\nit easy to disable headless mode while debugging or writing tests. It's also\n\npretty fun to watch tests execute on the browser window in real time:\n\n\n```shell\n\nexport CHROME_HEADLESS=false\n\nbundle exec rspec spec/features/merge_requests/filter_merge_requests_spec.rb\n\n```\n\n\n![Tests Executing in\nChrome](https://about.gitlab.com/images/blogimages/moving-to-headless-chrome/headlessless-chrome-tests.gif){:\n.shadow.center}\n\n\n### What is the differences between Poltergeist and Selenium?\n\n\nThe process of switching drivers here was not nearly as straightforward as\n\nit was with the frontend test suite. Dozens of tests started failing as soon\n\nas we changed our Capybara configuration, and this was due to some major\n\ndifferences in the way Selenium/ChromeDriver implemented Capybara's driver\nAPI\n\ncompared to Poltergeist/PhantomJS. Here are some of the challenges we ran\ninto:\n\n\n1.  **JavaScript modals are no longer accepted automatically**\n\n    We often use JavaScript `confirm(\"Are you sure you want to do X?\");` click\n    events when performing a destructive action such as deleting a branch or\n    removing a user from a group. Under Poltergeist a `.click` action would\n    automatically accept modals like `alert()` and `confirm()`, but under\n    Selenium, you now need to wrap these with one of `accept_alert`,\n    `accept_confirm`, or `dismiss_confirm`. e.g.:\n\n    ```ruby\n    # Before\n    page.within('.some-selector') do\n      click_link 'Delete'\n    end\n\n    # After\n    page.within('.some-selector') do\n      accept_confirm { click_link 'Delete' }\n    end\n    ```\n\n1.  **Selenium `Element.visible?` returns false for empty elements**\n\n    If you have an empty `div` or `span` that you want to access in your test,\n    Selenium does not consider these \"visible.\" This is not much of an issue\n    unless you set `Capybara.ignore_hidden_elements = true` as we do in our\n    feature tests. Where `find('.empty-div')` would have worked fine in\n    Poltergeist, we now need to use `visible: :any` to\n    select such elements.\n\n    ```ruby\n    # Before\n    find('.empty-div')\n\n    # After\n    find('.empty-div', visible: :any)\n    # or\n    find('.empty-div', visible: false)\n    ```\n\n    More on [Capybara and hidden elements](https://makandracards.com/makandra/7617-change-how-capybara-sees-or-ignores-hidden-elements).\n\n1.  {:#trigger-method} **Poltergeist's `Element.trigger('click')` method\ndoes not exist in Selenium**\n\n    In Capybara, when you use `find('.some-selector').click`, the element you\n    are clicking must be both visible and unobscured by any overlapping\n    element. Situations where links could not be clicked would sometimes occur\n    with Poltergeist/PhantomJS due to its poor CSS support sans-prefixes.\n    Here's one example:\n\n    ![Overlapping elements](https://about.gitlab.com/images/blogimages/moving-to-headless-chrome/overlapping-element.png){: .shadow.center}\n\n    The broken layout of the search form here was actually placing an invisible\n    element over the top of the \"Update all\" button, making it unclickable.\n    Poltergeist offers a `.trigger('click')` method to work around this.\n    Rather than actually clicking the element, this method would trigger a DOM\n    event to simulate a click. Utilizing this method was a bad practice, but\n    we ran into similar issues so often that many developers formed a habit\n    of using it everywhere. This began to lead to some lazy and sloppy test\n    writing. For instance, someone might use `.trigger` as a shortcut to click\n    on an link that was obscured behind an open dropdown menu, when a properly\n    written test should `.click` somewhere to close the dropdown, and _then_\n    `.click` on the item behind it.\n\n    Selenium does not support the `.trigger` method. Now that we were using a\n    more accurate rendering engine that won't break our layouts, many of these\n    instances could be resolved by simply replacing `.trigger('click')` with\n    `.click`, but due to some of the bad practice uses mentioned above, this\n    didn't always work.\n\n    There are of course some ways to hack a `.trigger` replacement. You could\n    simulate a click by focusing on an element and hitting the \"return\" key,\n    or use JavaScript to trigger a click event, but in most cases we decided to\n    take the time and actually correct these poorly implemented tests so that a\n    normal `.click` could again be used. After all, if our tests are meant to\n    simulate a real user interacting with the page, we should limit ourselves\n    to the actions a real user would be expected to use.\n\n    ```ruby\n    # Before\n    find('.obscured-link').trigger('click')\n\n    # After\n\n    # bad\n    find('.obscured-link').send_keys(:return)\n\n    # bad\n    execute_script(\"document.querySelector('.obscured-link').click();\")\n\n    # good\n    # do something to make link accessible, then\n    find('.link').click\n    ```\n\n1.  **`Element.send_keys` only works on focus-able elements**\n\n    We had a few places in our code where we would test out our keyboard\n    shortcuts using something like `find('.boards-list').native.send_keys('i')`.\n    It turns out Chrome will not allow you to `send_keys` to any element that\n    cannot be \"focused\", e.g. links, form elements, the document body, or\n    presumably anything with a tab index.\n\n    In all of the cases where we were doing this, triggering `send_keys` on the\n    body element would work since that's ultimately where our event handler was\n    listening anyway:\n\n    ```ruby\n    # Before\n    find('.some-div').native.send_keys('i')\n\n    # After\n    find('body').native.send_keys('i')\n    ```\n\n1.  **`Element.send_keys` does not support non-BMP characters (like emoji)**\n\n    In a few tests, we needed to fill out forms with emoji characters. With\n    Poltergeist we would do this like so:\n\n    ```ruby\n    # Before\n    find('#note-body').native.send_keys('@💃username💃')\n    ```\n\n    In Selenium we would get the following error message:\n\n    ```\n    Selenium::WebDriver::Error::UnknownError:\n        unknown error: ChromeDriver only supports characters in the BMP\n    ```\n\n    To work around this, we added [a JavaScript method to our test bundle that\n    would simulate input and fire off the same DOM events](https://gitlab.com/gitlab-org/gitlab-ce/blob/a8b9852837/app/assets/javascripts/test_utils/simulate_input.js)\n    that an actual keyboard input would generate on every keystroke, then\n    wrapped this with a [ruby helper](https://gitlab.com/gitlab-org/gitlab-ce/blob/a8b9852837/spec/support/input_helper.rb)\n    method that could be called like so:\n\n    ```ruby\n    # After\n    include InputHelper\n\n    simulate_input('#note-body', \"@💃username💃\")\n    ```\n\n1.  **Setting cookies is much more complicated**\n\n    It's quite common to want to set some cookies before `visit`ing a page that\n    you intend to test, whether it's to mock a user session, or toggle a\n    setting. With Poltergeist, this process is really simple. You can use\n    `page.driver.set_cookie`, provide a simple key/value pair, and it will just\n    work as expected, setting a cookie with the correct domain and scope.\n\n    Selenium is quite a bit more strict. The method is now\n    `page.driver.browser.manage.add_cookie`, and it comes with two caveats:\n\n    - You cannot set cookies until you `visit` a page in the domain you intend\n      to scope your cookies to.\n    - Annoyingly, you cannot alter the `path` parameter (or at least we could\n      never get this to work), so it is best to set cookies at the root path.\n\n    Before you `visit` your page, Chrome's url is technically sitting at\n    something like `about:blank;`. When you attempt to set a cookie there, it\n    will refuse because there is no hostname, and you cannot coerce one by\n    providing a domain as an argument. The [Selenium\n    documentation](http://docs.seleniumhq.org/docs/03_webdriver.jsp#cookies)\n    suggests that you do the following:\n\n    > If you are trying to preset cookies before you start interacting with a\n    > site and your homepage is large / takes a while to load, an alternative is\n    > to find a smaller page on the site (typically the 404 page is small, e.g.\n    > `http://example.com/some404page`).\n\n    ```ruby\n    # Before\n    before do\n      page.driver.set_cookie('name', 'value')\n    end\n\n    # After\n    before do\n      visit '/some-root-path'\n      page.driver.browser.manage.add_cookie(name: 'name', value: 'value')\n    end\n    ```\n\n1.  **Page request/response inspection methods are missing**\n\n    Poltergeist very conveniently implemented methods like `page.status_code`\n    and `page.response_headers` which are also present in Capybara's default\n    `RackTest` driver, making it easy to inspect the raw response from the\n    server, in addition to the way that response is rendered by the browser. It\n    also allowed you to inject headers into the requests made to the server,\n    e.g.:\n\n    ```ruby\n    # Before\n    before do\n      page.driver.add_header('Accept', '*/*')\n    end\n\n    it 'returns a 404 page'\n      visit some_path\n\n      expect(page.status_code).to eq(404)\n      expect(page).to have_css('.some-selector')\n    end\n    ```\n\n    Selenium does not implement these methods, and [the authors do not intend\n    to add support for them](https://github.com/seleniumhq/selenium-google-code-issue-archive/issues/141#issuecomment-191404986),\n    so we needed to develop a workaround. Several people have suggested running\n    a proxy alongside ChromeDriver that would intercept all traffic to and from\n    the server, but this seemed to us like overkill. Instead, we opted to\n    create a [lightweight Rack middleware](https://gitlab.com/gitlab-org/gitlab-ce/blob/a8b9852837/lib/gitlab/testing/request_inspector_middleware.rb)\n    and a corresponding [helper class](https://gitlab.com/gitlab-org/gitlab-ce/blob/a8b9852837/spec/support/inspect_requests.rb)\n    that would intercept the traffic for inspection. This is similar to our\n    [RequestBlockerMiddleware](https://gitlab.com/gitlab-org/gitlab-ce/blob/master/lib/gitlab/testing/request_blocker_middleware.rb)\n    that we were already using to intelligently `wait_for_requests` to complete\n    within our tests. It works like this:\n\n    ```ruby\n    # After\n    it 'returns a 404 page'\n      requests = inspect_requests do\n        visit some_path\n      end\n\n      expect(requests.first.status_code).to eq(404)\n      expect(page).to have_css('.some-selector')\n    end\n    ```\n\n    Within the `inspect_requests` block, the Rack middleware will log all\n    requests and responses, and return them as an array for inspection. This\n    will include the page being `visit`ed as well as the subsequent XHR and\n    asset requests, but the initial path request will be the first in the array.\n\n    You can also inject headers using the same helper like so:\n\n    ```ruby\n    # After\n    inspect_requests(inject_headers: { 'Accept' => '*/*' }) do\n      visit some_path\n    end\n    ```\n\n    This middleware should be injected early in the stack to ensure any other\n    middleware that might intercept or modify the request/response will be\n    seen by our tests. We include this line in our test environment config:\n\n    ```ruby\n    config.middleware.insert_before('ActionDispatch::Static', 'Gitlab::Testing::RequestInspectorMiddleware')\n    ```\n\n1.  **Browser console output is no longer output to the terminal**\n\n    Poltergeist would automatically output any `console` messages directly into\n    the terminal in real time as tests were run. If you had a bug in the frontend\n    code that caused a test to fail, this feature would make debugging much\n    easier as you could inspect the terminal output of the test for an error\n    message or a stack trace, or inject your own `console.log()` into the\n    JavaScript to see what is going on. With Selenium this is sadly no longer the\n    case.\n\n    You can, however, collect browser logs by configuring Capybara like so:\n\n    ```ruby\n    capabilities = Selenium::WebDriver::Remote::Capabilities.chrome(\n      loggingPrefs: {\n        browser: \"ALL\",\n        client: \"ALL\",\n        driver: \"ALL\",\n        server: \"ALL\"\n      }\n    )\n\n    # ...\n\n    Capybara::Selenium::Driver.new(\n      app,\n      browser: :chrome,\n      desired_capabilities: capabilities,\n      options: options\n    )\n    ```\n\n    This will allow you to access logs with the following, i.e. in the event of\n    a test failure:\n\n    ```ruby\n    page.driver.manage.get_log(:browser)\n    ```\n\n    This is far more cumbersome than it was in Poltergeist, but it's the best\n    method we've found so far. Thanks to [Larry Reid's blog post](http://technopragmatica.blogspot.com/2017/10/switching-to-headless-chrome-for-rails_31.html)\n    for the tip!\n\n## Results\n\n\nRegarding performance, we attempted to quantify the change with a\n\nnon-scientific analysis of 10 full-suite RSpec test runs _before_ this\nchange,\n\nand 10 more runs from _after_ this change, factoring out any tests that were\n\nadded or removed between these pipelines. The end result was:\n\n\n**Before:** 5h 18m 52s\n\n**After:** 5h 12m 34s\n\n\nA savings of about six minutes, or roughly 2 percent of the total compute\ntime, is\n\nstatistically insignificant, so I'm not going to claim we improved our test\n\nspeed with this change.\n\n\nWhat we did improve was test accuracy, and we vastly improved the tools at\nour\n\ndisposal to write and debug tests. Now, all of the Capybara screenshots\n\ngenerated when a CI/CD job fails look exactly as they do on your own browser\n\nrather than resembling the broken PhantomJS screenshot above. Inspecting a\n\nfailing test locally can now be done interactively by turning off headless\n\nmode, dropping a `byebug` line into the spec file, and watching the browser\n\nwindow as you type commands into the prompt. This technique proved extremely\n\nuseful while working on this project.\n\n\nYou can find all of the changes we made in [the original merge request page\n\non\nGitLab.com](https://gitlab.com/gitlab-org/gitlab-ce/merge_requests/12244).\n\n\n## What are some additional uses for headless Chrome?\n\n\nWe have also been utilizing headless Chrome to analyze frontend performance,\nand have found it to be useful in detecting issues.\n\n\nWe'd like to make it easier for other companies to embrace as well, so as\npart of the upcoming 10.3 release of GitLab we are releasing [Browser\nPerformance\nTesting](https://docs.gitlab.com/ee/user/project/merge_requests/browser_performance_testing.html).\nLeveraging [GitLab CI/CD](/solutions/continuous-integration/), headless\nChrome is launched against a set of pages and an overall performance score\nis calculated. Then for each merge request the scores are compared between\nthe source and target branches, making it easier detect performance\nregressions prior to merge.\n\n\n## Acknowledgements\n\n\nI sincerely hope this information will prove useful to anybody else looking\nto\n\nmake the switch from PhantomJS to headless Chrome for their Rails\napplication.\n\n\nThanks to the Google team for their very helpful documentation, thanks to\nthe\n\nmany bloggers out there who shared their own experiences with hacking\nheadless\n\nChrome in the early days of its availability, and special thanks to Vitaly\n\nSlobodin and the rest of the contributors to PhantomJS who provided us with\nan\n\nextremely useful tool that served us for many years. 🙇‍\n\n\n\u003Cstyle>\n\n\n.center {\n  text-align: center;\n  display: block;\n  margin-right: auto;\n  margin-left: auto;\n}\n\n\ncode, kbd {\n  font-size: 80%;\n}\n\n\n\u003C/style>\n","engineering",[23,24,25],"inside 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